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The first centuries of the Middle Ages were marked by economic crisis and the return to the natural economy. This was associated with the collapse of trade and the return to the traditional exchange of goods for goods. This situation lasted until the 8th century, when for the first time there was a significant increase in population, which entailed the development of agriculture. However, positive changes took place only in the following centuries. The period between the 11th and 13th century in particular was characterised by rapid population growth and the development of the European economy. The population of the continent doubled (from 25‑30 to 50‑55 million) as a result of improved climate and, consequently, greater access to better quality food. There were also changes in agriculture. The emergence of the new – three‑field rotationthree‑field rotationthree‑field rotation system not only increased the cultivated area of the fields, but also contributed to the milder effects of a possible crop failure. Changes also occurred in the technique of land cultivation. The proliferation of heavy ploughploughplough and breast collar increased soil fertility and yields. This allowed peasants to sell part of their harvest and buy goods or services in towns. The return to monetary economics was one of the most important factors which contributed to the development of trade, and thus of cities. Due to its close connection with rural development, the number of towns and cities that were places of trade and cultural development was also growing. It was there where construction, art and education developed. The latter in particular contributed to raising the awareness of the residents by providing more and more extensive knowledge about the world (academies and universitiesuniversityuniversities).

The development of Europe's economies brought with it also aspirations for more and more power of the monarchs, nobles and dignitaries of the Church. The rulers, who put considerable sums of money into Church organisation, believed that they had the right to decide about the fate of the institution they supported. The clergy never fully agreed to this, but often accepted it. The dispute intensified in the 11th century, when Pope Gregory VII stated that the people of the Church are not subject to secular laws (the so‑called Gregorian Reforms of 1075), but only to God's laws. This meant that secular people lost the right to interfere in the interior affairs of the Church, while clergy, as representatives of God, had the full right to speak out in secural matters. This led to a conflict between Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV, later called the InvestitureinvestitureInvestiture Controversion. Its essence was the emperor's desire to exercise total authority that would not be limited by the clergy. Initially, the conflict was won by the Pope, who excommunicated (excommunicationexcommunicationexcommunication) the emperor. This led to the emperor's self‑abasement in Canossa in 1077. However, as soon as the emperor managed to regain power, he forced the Pope to flee from Rome. The conflict, which lasted for many years, ended only when the emperor and the pope signed a contract in 1122 – the ConcordatconcordatConcordat of Worms. Disputes over the emperor's place in the new reality challenged the general notion of his special rights towards Christians and his sovereignty over other rulers. Frederic I and his successor, Frederick, II took a stand against the loss of authority of the rulers, trying to rebuild it by creating a new model of monarchy and by managing it appropriately. Unfortunately, these attempts were unsuccessful. The deaths of the aforementioned emperors caused a period of long civil wars between the candidates for the imperial crown.

Keywords

Three‑field rotation, immunity, inquisition, alms

Glossary