Read the text below and remember the basic information about the history of RomeRomeRome. Who was Gaius Julius Caesar? Look for some more information about him on the Internet.

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Popiersie Gajusza Juliusza Cezara.

When the RomansRomansRomans expelled their kings, RomeRomeRome became a republic, where similar to ancient Greece, the civic community ruled. However, the Republican RomeRomeRome never created a democracy like Athens, as the state was ruled by aristocrats – also named patricians coming from old Roman families. System of RomeRomeRome was described as „res publica”. The expression had several meanings: „public matter”, „common good” or simply „state.” Modern terms such as „republic” and „Rzeczpospolita” originate from the mentioned name. In the Roman republic, the highest civil and military authorities were owned by two consulsconsulconsuls elected for one year. The consulsconsulconsuls exercised the authority in consultation with the Senate consisted of seniors and experienced citizens. The poorer citizens, named plebeians had the right to organize their own gatherings and the election of tribunes whose duty was protection plebeians' interests. The tribune was a republican official and he had the right of veto against the actions of senators and consulsconsulconsuls. There was also existing an office of a dictator who was granted with absolute authorities for a maximum of six months to prevent extraordinary crises. Due to the fact that in the first century BC RomeRomeRome was engaged in many wars, the permanent professional army was formed, who was blindly devoted to its commanders. At the same time the civil war was running, because capable politicians and commanders struggled for the authority. When one of them - the conqueror of Gaul, Gaius Julius Caesar took over the full authority and proclaimed himself a lifetime dictator - the Roman republic fell. Caesar was an outstanding commander and reformer (he introduced a new calendar), but the size of his authorities worried his opponents. Therefore he was murdered at their request.

Read the text below and remember the most important information about the history of RomeRomeRome. Why did the RomansRomansRomans succeed in conquering vast areas of Europe?

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Popiersie Oktawiana Augusta.

During the time of the republic, the unification of RomansRomansRomans by Italia became the starting point for further expansion. Initially west against Carthage, and later to the east. Octavian Augustus, the adoptive son of the famous leader Julius Caesar, after his death, became the first Roman emperoremperoremperor. The epoch of the empire is divided into two periods: the early and late empires. The successive emperorsemperoremperors ruled RomeRomeRome for the next 500 years. Their authorities extended far beyond Italy, to all areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. Through military conquests, the RomansRomansRomans for the first time in history have adjoined significant areas of Europe into the Mediterranean culture, which meant the start for their subsequent civilization development. Only in the early period of the Empire the inhabitants of the Roman Empire, did enjoy peace. Later, their most important task was to defend the state borders. Both the conquest and maintenance of vast areas was possible due to a perfectly organized army, known as legionslegionslegions. The RomansRomansRomans throughout the empire built a network of beaten roads. They were created for the needs of the army, but civilians also used them. The fall of the Roman Empire took place as a result of the expansion of Germans and Slavs. Almost exactly half of the existence of the Roman state - counting from the birth of the republic to the fall of the empire - is the birth of Christianity. It survived despite the political fall of RomeRomeRome.

Learn about the battle of the Teutoburg Forest. What was the effect of this defeat on further expansion of Rome?

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Obraz malarski Bitwa w Lesie Teutoburskim, przedstawiający zwycięstwo sił germańskich nad rzymskimi legionami. Od pierwszego planu do dalszego planu obraz wypełniony jest postaciami wojowników. Widoczną przewagę liczebną mają wojownicy germańscy, którzy brutalnie poskramiają jednostki rzymskiego legionu.

At the beginning of our era, in 9 AD, the RomansRomansRomans in their conquests stopped on the Rhine. The reason was their defeat in the battle with the Germans, in the Teutoburg Forest, east of the Rhine.

During the 3 days and 2 nights of fighting, all 3 Roman legionslegionslegions stationed there and all other divisions fell. Approximately 20,000 to 25,000 soldiers were killed along with the highest command. Right at the beginning of the battle, the RomansRomansRomans’ leader, Varus, was wounded when trying to break into the Rhine. Seeing no chance of survival and afraid of being captured alive, he committed suicide. He was followed by the highest‑ranking officers, three legates of the legionlegionslegion. As a result of the defeat, the Roman armyroman armyRoman army was reduced to 25 legionslegionslegions for some time, and the unlucky numbers XVII, XVIII and XIX were never used again.

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Fragment obrazu Bitwa w Lesie Teutoburskim. Fragment ukazuje wojownika germańskiego przygniatającego bronią do ziemi legionistę rzymskiego. W tle widoczne są ciała innych legionistów tratowanych przez siły germańskie.

Ancient sources say that on sleepless nights, EmperoremperorEmperor Augustus walked the corridors of his palace, crying „Varus, return my legionslegionslegions to me!”. As a sign of mourning, he did not cut his hair for months and he tore his robes apart in desperation.
The leader of the Germanic peoples, Arminius, cut off Varus' head, as a gift to his ally - the Germanic king of the Marcomanni, Maroboduus. However, he sent it to RomeRomeRome, where the emperoremperoremperor buried it in a family mausoleum.

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Fragment obrazu Bitwa w Lesie Teutoburskim. Fragment ukazuje germańskiego wodza Arminiusza, który dosiada białego konia. Wódz spogląda na swoich żołnierzy, a jego prawa dłoń z mieczem jest podniesiona w górę. Obok niego oraz w tle widoczni są inni wojownicy biorący udział w bitwie.

EmperoremperorEmperor Augustus decided that the further expansion of RomeRomeRome in Europe is pointless. From then on, the empire defended its borders on the lines of the great rivers of the Rhine and the Danube, where in total, more than half of the Roman legionslegionslegions were stationed.
The Roman soldiers went to the Teutoburg Forest two more times, seven years after the defeat. The first time they buried the bones of Varus’ legionaries; the second time they even managed to beat Arminius, but these actions did not bring them anything - they did not ensure the recovery of the lost Germanic lands. They only managed to recover the eagle of the 19th legionlegionslegion.

Read the text below and check the position occupied by the scouts, armoured cavalryarmoured cavalryarmoured cavalry, siege equipment, legionnaire cohorts, and rolling stock in the Roman armyroman armyRoman army.

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Ilustracja przedstawiająca rzymskich legionistów w zbrojach ustawionych w szyku do walki. Są uzbrojeni w hełmy, prostokątne tarcze, zbroje segementowe i włócznie.

The linear formation was the most popular in the Roman armyroman armyRoman army. It consisted of all the units moving in a long column, and each of them had a specific place and task in it. Scouts were marching first. The task of the subsequent units was to prepare the way for the main forces to march and find the right place for the camp. They were followed by pack animals carrying the luggage of soldiers and officers. Next, commanding officer together with the senior officers and the collateral procession were moving. Behind them the proper armoured horse‑mounted troops were marching, where the riders were positioned so that they could quickly move to any place of the marching column at any time. They were followed by siege equipment and war machines, and in this part of the army also legionary signs and emblems and trumpets were carried. The main forces of the army followed the signs. These were legionary cohorts arranged in a fixed order, six soldiers each in a row. They were followed by rolling stock, carrying food, tools, and finally a pedestrian and a horse rearguard.