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Herbivores, adaptation to a herbivorous diet, plants' defence mechanisms

Source: https://unsplash.com/, domena publiczna.

Link to the lesson

Before you start you should know
  • that the food consumed by animals provides them with ingredients necessary for the building and functioning of the body and the energy required to perform vital functions;

  • that the adaptation to a lifestyle refers to the features of the structure and functioning of the organism and to behaviour patterns.

You will learn
  • to identify and discuss the adaptation of animals to food acquisition;

  • to explain what determines the number of predators and their victims in the ecosystem;

  • to indicate what features evolved as a means of defence against predators;

  • to explain the relationship between the type of food (plant‑based, animal‑based) and the structure of the digestive system

  • to give examples and to recognize the characteristics of plants that are adapted to defend themselves against herbivores.

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Nagranie dźwiękowe abstraktu dotyczące roślinożerców, przystosowania do roślinożerności, przystosowania obronnego roślin

Herbivores

Plants are the source of food for herbivores. Among herbivores we can find many insects, but also some fish, birds and mammals, mainly ungulates. Interestingly, there are almost no herbivorous species among amphibians; herbivorous reptiles are also very rare. Taking food of plant origin requires the development of certain features (adaptationadaptationadaptation).

Adaptations for digesting plant food can be traced on the example of herbivorous mammals. Plant‑based food is relatively easy to acquire, but difficult to digest. Its main ingredient is cellulose (a polysaccharide that builds walls of the plant’s cells), which mammals cannot decompose because they lack adequate digestive enzymes. A portion of plant‑based food provides significantly less energy as compared to the same portion of food of animal origin. For this reason, herbivores graze for many hours every day and have a long, extensive digestive tract, in which the food can stay and be digested for a long time.

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Comparison of the size of the digestive systems of herbivores (runinants) and carnivores
Source: Andrzej Bogusz, licencja: CC BY 3.0.
Task 1

Explain why the fact that the food stays in the digestive tract for a long time allows for its more accurate digestion.

A large African elephant eats about 200 kg of grass, leaves, small twigs and fruit daily. Of all this, almost half is removed with faeces. A giraffe consumes similar foods, but eats 10 times less than the elephant in relation to its body weight. This is because the giraffe is a ruminant, and the digestion is facilitated by the microorganisms that live in its stomach. Thanks to them, the giraffe digests its food more efficiently.

Adaptation to an herbivorous diet

Hard plant food requires insects to be equipped with chewing mouthparts that are capable of cutting off leaves, drilling wood, and eating fruit. These organs have wide and flat edges, similar to scissors.

Herbivorous birds have a high energy demand, which is why they feed mainly on fruit or seeds. They usually have thick, strong beaks. The hawfinch, 18 centimetres long and weighing only 5 decagrams, can crush beech seeds, fruit seeds and hazelnuts with its beak. The crossbills have crossed mandibles, which are specialized in extracting seeds from cones. The hummingbird, which feeds on the liquid nectar of flowers, has a long, narrow, and relatively soft beak.

Among mammals, the adaptation to digesting plant‑based food is evident in the structure of their teeth. The front teeth of mammals that feed on the grass, the incisors, are arranged in a line, thanks to which they form a sharp cutting edge. The rear teeth, in turn, are wide and have a flat crown, covered with sharp folds resembling a grater. They are used to grind food. Teeth of herbivores wear out over time, even up to the gums. In rodents that feed on harder food, the incisors grow throughout their lives. Thanks to that, these mammals can bite bark and wood, hard seeds and fruits.

The giraffe has a special nutritional adaptation. It eats the leaves of spiny bushes, therefore it has prehensile, tough lips and tongue, which measures up 50 centimetres. These organs are resistant to thorny pricks.

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Ilustracja interaktywna przedstawia przystosowania zwierząt do zdobycia pokarmu: 1. Zdjęcie żyrafy zjadającej liście z drzewa - Thanks to the long neck, the giraffe has access to food unavailable to other herbivores., 2. Zdjęcie dużej zielonej ryby z otwartym szeroko pyskiem - Fish belonging to algae eaters consume large amounts of algae scraped from stones and aquarium glass. It is possible thanks to their sucker-like mouth with numerous teeth., 3. Zdjęcie słonia sięgającego trąbą do liści korony drzewa - With the help of a long and prehensile trunk, the elephant has access to leaves and fruits from hard to reach places.
Adaptations for getting hard to reach food
Source: Casey Allen, Dixi, Harshil Gudka, GroMar Sp. z o.o., licencja: CC BY-SA 3.0.
Task 2

Cows and other herbivores have a very sensitive, bare, moist skin from the upper lip up to the nostrils. Explain what function it plays in food intake.

Plants' defence mechanisms

Plants eaten by animals grow less and bear less seeds. That is why they have developed various strategies to defend themselves against herbivores, one of which is mechanical defence. Plants protect themselves against biting by producing hard leaves (e.g. spruce), which can be digested by few animals, leaves covered with thick hairs (e.g. mullein), which are an impenetrable barrier for small organisms, or create spikes and pricklespricklesprickles and thornsthornsthorns that discourage the touching (e.g. blackberry, blackthorn).

The second strategy is the production of repellent substances. Some plants have an unpleasant, burning taste (e.g. pepper fruits), cause poisoning (e.g. aconite), or have an unpleasant odour (e.g. geranium). Yet another adaptation is observed in the unarmed white nettle, which resembles the nettle. This similarity probably reduces possible herbivore threat.

Task 3
Zastanów się, jakie znasz mechanizmy obronne roślin.
Zastanów się, jakie znasz mechanizmy obronne roślin.
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Exercise 1
Place all elements in the appropriate groups. herbivorous mammal Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. prehensile lips and tongue, 2. extensive digestive tract, 3. relatively short bowel, 4. long intestine, 5. taking large amounts of food throughout the day, 6. taking small portions of food throughout the day, 7. big stomach, 8. presence of cellulose decomposing microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract, 9. a small stomach. carnivorous mammal Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. prehensile lips and tongue, 2. extensive digestive tract, 3. relatively short bowel, 4. long intestine, 5. taking large amounts of food throughout the day, 6. taking small portions of food throughout the day, 7. big stomach, 8. presence of cellulose decomposing microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract, 9. a small stomach
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Exercise 2
Select the adaptations in the structure of the teeth that help mammals to digest plant food. Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. front teeth forming a sharp line, 2. wide rear teeth with a flat crown, covered with sharp folds, 3. well-developed, sharp and slightly curved fangs, 4. incisors that grow throughout the whole life
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Exercise 3
Wymyśl pytanie na kartkówkę związane z tematem abstraktu.
Source: Frank Vincentz, licencja: CC BY-SA 3.0.

Summary

  • The digestive system of herbivores is extensive, adapted to the digestion of plant food.

  • Plants protect against herbivores through, among others, the production of thorns and prickles.

  • Defence mechanisms increase the chance of survival.

Keywords

herbivore diet, digestion, defence

Glossary

adaptation
adaptation
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Nagranie dźwiękowe słówka adaptation

adaptacja – przystosowanie; cecha budowy, funkcjonowania organizmu lub zachowania zwiększająca szansę przetrwania w określonych warunkach środowiskowych

thorns
thorns
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Nagranie dźwiękowe słówka thorns

ciernie – skrócone, twarde, ostro zakończone liście lub pędy boczne pełniące funkcję obronną

prickles
prickles
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Nagranie dźwiękowe słówka prickles

kolce – u roślin wytwory skórki służące do obrony przed roślinożercami