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Nuclear transformations

Source: licencja: CC 0.

Przemiany jądrowe

You will learn
  • to describe radioactive decay.

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nagranie abstraktu

Before you start, answer the questions.

  • What is radioactive decayradioactive decayradioactive decay?

  • What properties has alpha, beta and gamma radiation?

Radioactive decay is an random process in which alpha, beta or gamma radiation is emitted.
It is not possible to predict when an individual atom will decay. The decay process is spontaneous and can be only described statistically.

Law of Radioactive Decay
Definition: Law of Radioactive Decay
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nagranie abstraktu

The law of radioactive decayradioactive decayradioactive decay describes the statistical behaviour of a large number of nuclides. It says that:

N=-λ·N(t)·t

where:

N(t) - is the total amount of untransformed nuclei at a time t,
∆N - is the number of nuclei decayed in the time ∆t,
the decay constantdecay constantdecay constant λ - is a parameter that characterizes a given radioactive substance. It determines the probability of nucleus decay per unit of time. The unit of the decay constant is sIndeks górny -1.

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nagranie abstraktu

The radioactivity of an object is measured by the number of nuclear decays it emits each second – the more it emits, the more radioactive it is.

The decay rate is known as the activity of a particular sample and is defined as a number of decays in nucleus at any given moment.

A(t)=Nt

The basic unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq).

1Bq=1decay1s
Half‑life
Definition: Half‑life
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nagranie abstraktu

The rate of radioactive decayradioactive decayradioactive decay is also determined in terms of half‑lives. 

The half‑life is the amount of time it takes for a given isotope to lose half of its radioactivity and is denoted as T or TIndeks dolny 1/2 . After two half‑lives the size of the sample is quartered, after third half‑life an eighth of atoms is left intact and so on. The half‑life does not depend on the age of the nuclei or the amount of the sample.

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Source: GroMar, licencja: CC BY 3.0.
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nagranie abstraktu

The dependence of the number of nuclei remaining in a given isotope sample on time has an exponential character.

Using the half‑life concept, the law of radioactive decay can be written down as:

N(t)=N02tT1/2

This dependence allows calculating the number of non‑transformed nuclei at any time.

In the table below half‑lives for different isotopes are presented.

Isotope

Half life

Decay constantdecay constantDecay constant (sIndeks górny -1)

Uranium 238

4,5 · 10Indeks górny 9 years

5,0 · 10Indeks górny -18

Plutonium 239

2,4 · 10Indeks górny 4 years

9,2 · 10Indeks górny -13

Carbon 14

5570 years

3,9 · 10Indeks górny -12

Radium 226

1622 years

1,35 · 10Indeks górny -12

Free neutron 239

15 minutes

1,1 · 10Indeks górny -3

Radon 220

52 seconds

1,33 · 10Indeks górny -2

Lithium 8

0,84 seconds

0,825

Bismuth 214

1,6 · 10Indeks górny -4 seconds

4,33 · 10Indeks górny 3

Task 1
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nagranie abstraktu

Examine the graph showing the radioactive decay for the isotope C14 in the sample of organic material for 30000 years after its death. Answer the questions.

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Source: GroMar, licencja: CC BY 3.0.

1. How long is approximately one half‑life for C14?

2. If the initial number of the atoms of C14 in the sample was 10000, how many atoms that are not transformed remains after:
a) one half‑life,
b) two half‑lives,
c) three half‑lives.

3. Explain why in your opinion C14 half‑life measurements are not effective in dating of a sample of a living organism in the time period longer than 50000 years after its death?

Law of radioactive displacements.
Definition: Law of radioactive displacements.
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nagranie abstraktu

In the process of a radioactive disintegrationdisintegrationdisintegration, the nucleus which undergoes decay is called a parent nucleusparent nucleusparent nucleus and the product of the process is called a daughter nucleus.

The law of radioactive displacements, also known as Fajans and Soddy Law describes the relations between the parent nucleusparent nucleusparent nucleus and daughter nucleusdaughter nucleusdaughter nucleus in terms of the atomic number and the mass number.

α‑decay
Definition: α‑decay
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nagranie abstraktu

In alpha decay, an element is created with an atomic number less by 2 and a mass number less by 4 of that of the parent radioisotope. The α‑decay can be expressed as:

XZAYZ-2A-4+H24e
Example 1

Radium R88226a is converted to radon 86222Rn due to α–decay.

R88226aR86222n+H24e
β−decay
Definition: β−decay
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nagranie abstraktu

In beta decay (emitted particle is an electron), the mass number remains unchanged while the atomic number becomes greater by 1 than that of the parent radioisotope. β−decay can be expressed as:

XZAYZ+1A+e-10
Example 2

Thorium T90234h is converted to protoactinium P91234a due to β–decay.

T90234hP91234a+e-10

At a time, either α or β particle is emitted. Both α and β particles cannot be emitted simultaneously during a single decay.

γ−decay
Definition: γ−decay
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nagranie abstraktu

When a radioactive nucleus emits γ−rays, only the energy level of the nucleus changes and the atomic number and mass number remain the same.

During α or β−decay, the daughter nucleusdaughter nucleusdaughter nucleus is mostly in the excited state. Return to the ground state is associated with the emission of γ−rays.

Example 3

During the transformationtransformationtransformation of radium R88226a into radon R86222n , radon returns from the excited state to the ground state and γ−ray of 0,187 MeV is emitted.

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Na ilustracji interaktywnej pokazany jest schematycznie rozpad radonu. Podczas przemiany radu w radon, radon powraca ze stanu wzbudzonego do stanu podstawowego i emitowane jest promieniowanie gamma.Stan energetyczny jądra przedstawiony jest jako pozioma linia opisana: w indeksie górnym 226, w indeksie dolnym 88, Ra. Następujący rozpad alfa symbolizuje zielona strzałka, opisana numerem 1, która wskazuje kolejną, niżej położoną linię oznaczającą stan wzbudzony kolejnego izotopu radonu i opisana jest: w indeksie górnym 222, w indeksie dolnym 86, Rn w indeksie górnym gwiazdka. Emituje on promień gamma oznaczony pomarańczową strzałką i opisany numerem 2. Stan podstawowy końcowego produktu rozpadu oznaczony jest jako kolejna, trzecia pozioma linia opisana: w indeksie górnym 222, w indeksie dolnym 88, Rn. Na ilustracji widoczne są numery, a na nich podpisy. 1. α-particle {audio}, 2. γ-ray {audio}.
The decay of is a two-step process
Source: GroMar, licencja: CC BY 3.0.
Radioactive series
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radioactive seriesradioactive seriesradioactive series is a decay chain in which each member of the series is a product of the decay of the nuclidenuclidenuclide before it. The series ends with a stable nuclide. Four radioactive series are known: three of them occur naturally, the other one starts with an artificially created radionuclide.

Natural series

- Thorium T232h

- Uranium U235

- Uranium U238

All of them end with an isotope of lead.

The plutonium series starts with the artificial plutonium isotope P241u and ends with bismuth B209i.

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Source: GroMar, licencja: CC BY 3.0.
Task 2
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nagranie abstraktu

Write the equations for the following processes.

1. The alpha decay of radon R198n.

2. The beta decay of uranium U237.

Remember
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nagranie abstraktu
  • Radioactive decayradioactive decayRadioactive decay is spontaneous process where alpha, beta or gamma radiation is emitted. The description of such process is done in a statistical approach.

  • The law of radioactive decay, half‑life and the law of radioactive displacementdisplacementdisplacement describe features of disintegrationdisintegrationdisintegration of a given isotope.

  • The law of radioactive decay describes the statistical behaviour of a large number of nuclides.

Exercises

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Exercise 1
Wersja alternatywna ćwiczenia: Determine which sentences are true. Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. Radioactivity is random and spontaneous., 2. When two nuclei have the same mass number, but different atomic number, then they are called isotopes., 3. Half-life is the time that it takes for 12 sample to decay., 4. The isotope used to determine the age of organic samples is radon 222Rn.
zadanie
Source: GroMar, licencja: CC BY 3.0.
Exercise 2

Write equation for the following reaction.

- Decay of polonium P84214o by alpha emission.

Exercise 3

Explain in English what laws describe the statistical behaviour of radioactive decay.

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Exercise 4
Wersja alternatywna ćwiczenia: Indicate which pairs of expressions or words are translated correctly. Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. przemiana - transformation, 2. rozpad radioaktywny - radioactive decay, 3. stała rozpadu - decay constant, 4. czas połowicznego rozpadu - half-live, 5. rozpad - displacement, 6. jądro macierzyste - daughter nucleus
zadanie
Source: GroMar, licencja: CC BY 3.0.
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Interaktywna gra, polegająca na łączeniu wyrazów w pary w ciągu jednej minuty. Czas zaczyna upływać wraz z rozpoczęciem gry. Jeden ruch to odkrywanie najpierw jednej potem drugiej karty z wyrazem. Każdy wyraz jest odczytywany. Kolejny ruch to odkrywanie trzeciej i czwartej karty. W ten sposób odsłuchasz wszystkie wyrazy. Nawigacja z poziomu klawiatury za pomocą strzałek, odsłuchiwanie wyrazów enterem lub spacją. Znajdź wszystkie pary wyrazów.
Source: Zespół autorski Politechniki Łódzkiej, licencja: CC BY 3.0.

Glossary

transformation
transformation

przemiana

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wymowa w języku angielskim: transformation
radioactive decay
radioactive decay

rozpad radioaktywny

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wymowa w języku angielskim: radioactive decay
decay constant
decay constant

stała rozpadu

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wymowa w języku angielskim: decay constant
half‑live
half‑live

czas połowicznego rozpadu

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wymowa w języku angielskim: half‑live
radioactive series
radioactive series

szereg promieniotwórczy 

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wymowa w języku angielskim: radioactive series
nuclide
nuclide

nuklid

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wymowa w języku angielskim: nuclide
disintegration
disintegration

rozpad

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wymowa w języku angielskim: disintegration
displacement
displacement

przesunięcie

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wymowa w języku angielskim: displacement
parent nucleus
parent nucleus

jądro macierzyste

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wymowa w języku angielskim: parent nucleus
daughter nucleus
daughter nucleus

jądro potomne

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wymowa w języku angielskim: daughter nucleus

Keywords

transformationtransformationtransformation

radioactive decayradioactive decayradioactive decay

decay constantdecay constantdecay constant

half‑livehalf‑livehalf‑live

radioactive seriesradioactive seriesradioactive series