Late Middle Ages was a time of change, which could be seen throughout Europe and which affected practically every aspect of life at that time. The role of popes and emperorsEmperoremperors changed, who lost their position and authority as a result of conflicts and divisions. The political fall of the Church, expressed in the Great Western SchismSchismSchism (1378‑1417), was also accompanied by a moral crisis. It led to an intensification of movements demanding a reform of the Church, the best example of which was the Czech Hussitism and its enormous influence on politics in Central Europe at the beginning of the 15th century. Another thing which changed was the perception of the world by subjects, and the views on God’s influence on the life on Earth (the views of St. Thomas Aquinas), which was the first step toward a new era.
The time of harmony and universalism, as the Middle Ages were often called, was slowly becoming a thing of the past, giving way to a sense of belonging to nations and emerging countries. The disappearance of feudal dependencies, and a change in the way wars were being waged, brought about a definitive end to the perception of states as the property of the ruling dynastiesDynastydynasties, thus contributing to an increasing national awareness. The medieval ideas about the realization of Christian universalism collapsed over time, preparing the way for the changes that eventually led to the development of humanism and a new era – the Renaissance.
Task 1
Divide into two groups: supporters of the power of a ‘national’ king, and supporters of the universal power of an EmperorEmperorEmperor. Using the text below, present arguments for superiority of the power of one of them over the other. Compare the roles of both:
during an invasion of Europe by Ottoman Turks,
during a war with a Christian neighbor who is plundering the borderland,
during an internal revolt of peasants against the nobilityNobilitynobility and the Church.
Bartolus de SaxoferratoO władzy monarchów (XIV w.)
[...] jest jasne, że wszyscy królowie są wybrani przez Boga, bezpośrednio lub pośrednio, także przez elektorów z inspiracji Boga. [...] dlatego władza, która jest powoływana do życia poprzez elekcjęElectionelekcję, jest świętsza niż ta, którą się osiąga przez dziedziczenie. [...] dlatego wybór na władcę uniwersalnego dokonuje się poprzez elekcjęElectionelekcję dokonaną przez książąt i dostojników Kościoła, a nie przez dziedziczenie. Takie jest cesarstwo i władza, które Bóg uczynił u zarania dziejów.
[...] Ale królowie poszczególnych społeczności częściej są stanowieni przez ludzi. W tym przypadku jest dozwolone, by władza była przekazywana drogą dziedziczenia. [...] jest niebezpiecznym posiadanie króla z innego narodu (niż jego poddani). Ale w tym przypadku, możecie powiedzieć, jak to się stało, że cesarstwo Rzymian zostało przekazane Germanom, to jest Niemcom, przez Kościół? Moja odpowiedź brzmi: bo wszyscy chrześcijanie nazywają siebie braćmi [...]. Ale nie może być przekazane (cesarstwo) Saracenowi, poganinowi lub niewiernemu. [...] [nie powinno się wybierać króla spośród innych narodów] ponieważ władza nad innym narodem nie jest wykonywana w sposób tak wierny [jak wobec własnego]. I dlatego Imperium Rzymskie, odkąd zostało oddzielone od Rzymian, słabło na naszych oczach. To nie mogło się jednak wydarzyć bez ukrytego zamiaru Boga.
bartolo Source: Bartolus de Saxoferrato, O władzy monarchów (XIV w.), [w:] Traktat o rządzeniu miastem, tłum. P. Wiszewski.
Exercise 1
Based on the text from Task 1 and your own knowledge, perform a SWOT analysis for the decision about choosing Władysław II Jagiełło as the husband of Jadwiga of Poland.
Ilustracja przedstawiająca spotkanie naukowców, biskupów, kardynałów i papieża Jana XXIII w katedrze w Konstancji podczas rady, która zakończyła Wielką Schizmę Zachodnią. Dokończ zdanie: The great schism was a shock to Europeans because. Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. they were happy to have two popes at the same time. 2. they had to pay twice as much tax. 3. they did not know whether the curse of the other pope would deprive them of salvation.
Ilustracja przedstawiająca spotkanie naukowców, biskupów, kardynałów i papieża Jana XXIII w katedrze w Konstancji podczas rady, która zakończyła Wielką Schizmę Zachodnią. Dokończ zdanie: The great schism was a shock to Europeans because. Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. they were happy to have two popes at the same time. 2. they had to pay twice as much tax. 3. they did not know whether the curse of the other pope would deprive them of salvation.
The meeting of scientists, bishops, cardinals, and Pope John XXIII at the Cathedral in Constanta during the council that ended the Great Western Schism.
Source: Ulrich Richental, Kronika Soboru w Konstancji, 1460-1465.
Exercise 3
Przeczytaj tekst, a następnie dokończ zdanie. Magna Carta. Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. gave all residents of England the right to personal freedom. 2. equated the role of the townspeople in England with the social status of knighthood. 3. strengthened the position of the English knighthood on the king.
Przeczytaj tekst, a następnie dokończ zdanie. Magna Carta. Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. gave all residents of England the right to personal freedom. 2. equated the role of the townspeople in England with the social status of knighthood. 3. strengthened the position of the English knighthood on the king.
Read the text and answer the question.
Magna Carta Libertatum
29. No Freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or be disseised of his Freehold, or Liberties, or free Customs, or be outlawed, or exiled, or any other wise destroyed; nor will We not pass upon him, nor condemn him, but by lawful judgment of his Peers, or by the Law of the land. We will sell to no man, we will not deny or defer to any man either Justice or Right.
magna carta Source: Magna Carta Libertatum.
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Ilustracja przedstawiająca scenę: John Lackland, król Anglii, odmówił podpisania Magna Carta (Wielka Karta Wolności), kiedy została po raz pierwszy złożona. Niedługo potem podpisał ją w czerwcu 1215 r. Uroczystość odbyła się w Runnymede, łące nad Tamizą, kilka kilometrów od Windsoru.
Ilustracja przedstawiająca scenę: John Lackland, król Anglii, odmówił podpisania Magna Carta (Wielka Karta Wolności), kiedy została po raz pierwszy złożona. Niedługo potem podpisał ją w czerwcu 1215 r. Uroczystość odbyła się w Runnymede, łące nad Tamizą, kilka kilometrów od Windsoru.
John Lackland, king of England, refused to sign Magna Carta (the Great Charter of the Liberties) when it was first submitted. He signed it shortly afterwards, in June 1215. The ceremony took place at Runnymede, a meadow on the Thames, a few kilometers from Windsor.
Source: John Cassel, Ilustrowana historia Anglii, 1902.
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Exercise 4
Mapa Polski, Litwy, Ukrainy, Moskwy i Bałkanów, rozciągająca się od Prus i Smoleńska na północy aż do Bośni, Bułgarii, Konstantynopola i Krymu na południu. Polska jest w centrum. Dokończ zdanie: Louis I of Hungary had three daughters. He wanted them to rule. Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. Hungary and Anjou. 2. Hungary and Croatia. 3. Poland and Castile.
Mapa Polski, Litwy, Ukrainy, Moskwy i Bałkanów, rozciągająca się od Prus i Smoleńska na północy aż do Bośni, Bułgarii, Konstantynopola i Krymu na południu. Polska jest w centrum. Dokończ zdanie: Louis I of Hungary had three daughters. He wanted them to rule. Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. Hungary and Anjou. 2. Hungary and Croatia. 3. Poland and Castile.
Map of Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine, Moscow and the Balkans, stretching from Prussia, Vilnius, and Smolensk in the north, to Bosnia, Bulgaria, Constantinople, and Crimea in the south. Poland in the center.
Source: Sebastian Munster, Nowy opis Polski i Węgier, 1552.
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Exercise 5
Ilustracja przedstawia fresk z kaplicy na Zamku Lubelskim. Władysław Jagiełło klęczy przed Matką Bożą. Przeczytaj tekst i wybierz poprawną odpowiedź. Władysław II Jagiełło was perceived by Poles in two contrasting ways. He was reproached for his pagan past, but was appreciated for being the powerful warrior who defeated the army of the Teutonic Order. Remember what the paintings in the chapel of the Lublin Castle look like. The decor of the chapel, supervised by the king several decades after his marriage with Jadwiga. Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. emphasized the identity of Lublin among the rest of the country. 2. was nothing special in the Kingdom of Poland. 3. emphasized Jagiełło’s cultural roots.
Ilustracja przedstawia fresk z kaplicy na Zamku Lubelskim. Władysław Jagiełło klęczy przed Matką Bożą. Przeczytaj tekst i wybierz poprawną odpowiedź. Władysław II Jagiełło was perceived by Poles in two contrasting ways. He was reproached for his pagan past, but was appreciated for being the powerful warrior who defeated the army of the Teutonic Order. Remember what the paintings in the chapel of the Lublin Castle look like. The decor of the chapel, supervised by the king several decades after his marriage with Jadwiga. Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. emphasized the identity of Lublin among the rest of the country. 2. was nothing special in the Kingdom of Poland. 3. emphasized Jagiełło’s cultural roots.
Fresco in the Lublin Castle chapel
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Exercise 6
Ilustracja przedstawia Kazimierza IV Jagiellończyka i jego żonę Elżbietę, arcyksiężnę Austrii. Podaj prawidłową odpowiedź. Before Władysław III of Poland died, his brother, Casimir, was elected Grand Duke of Lithuania by the magnates of Lithuania. This decision. Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. strengthened the Lithuanians’ feeling of freedom and their attachment to the union with the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. 2. led to the union of Lithuania with Moscow. 3. weakened the union of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania.
Ilustracja przedstawia Kazimierza IV Jagiellończyka i jego żonę Elżbietę, arcyksiężnę Austrii. Podaj prawidłową odpowiedź. Before Władysław III of Poland died, his brother, Casimir, was elected Grand Duke of Lithuania by the magnates of Lithuania. This decision. Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. strengthened the Lithuanians’ feeling of freedom and their attachment to the union with the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. 2. led to the union of Lithuania with Moscow. 3. weakened the union of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania.
Grand Duke of Lithuania and king of Poland Casimir IV Jagiellon and his wife Elisabeth of Austria, unknown painter from the 17th century.
Source: Kazimierz i Elżbieta Habsburżanka.
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Exercise 7
Ilustracja przedstawiająca Jana Olbrachta. Wybierz prawidłową odpowiedź. John I Albert, when making the decision (with tragic consequences) about the expedition against Turkey and later Moldova, Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. wanted to recapture Constantinople and restore freedom to the Slavs. 2. wanted to secure the southern borderlands of the the Kingdom of Poland. 3. was thinking only of the great glory that he would have gained if he had defeated the great adversary.
Ilustracja przedstawiająca Jana Olbrachta. Wybierz prawidłową odpowiedź. John I Albert, when making the decision (with tragic consequences) about the expedition against Turkey and later Moldova, Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. wanted to recapture Constantinople and restore freedom to the Slavs. 2. wanted to secure the southern borderlands of the the Kingdom of Poland. 3. was thinking only of the great glory that he would have gained if he had defeated the great adversary.
Portrait of John I Albert
Source: Marcello Bacciarelli, Jan Olbracht, 1768-1771.
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Exercise 8
Ilustracja przedstawiająca stronę ze Statutu przygotowaną przez prymasa Jana Łaskiego, Wielkiego Kanclerza Korony, przedstawiająca polski parlament. Przeczytaj tekst i wybierz prawidłowe zakończenie: Medieval times are associated with kings’ rule. But from the 14th century onward, states were becoming stronger and stronger. The Polish nobility of the 15th century clearly tried to limit the powers of rulers. Gradually, representatives of the nobility began to dominate the political life of the Crown. The Polish nobility provided advice on the issues of the state and region at Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. sejmiks and general sejms. 2. provincial and convocation sejms. 3. dinner with the king during the time of the general sejm.
Ilustracja przedstawiająca stronę ze Statutu przygotowaną przez prymasa Jana Łaskiego, Wielkiego Kanclerza Korony, przedstawiająca polski parlament. Przeczytaj tekst i wybierz prawidłowe zakończenie: Medieval times are associated with kings’ rule. But from the 14th century onward, states were becoming stronger and stronger. The Polish nobility of the 15th century clearly tried to limit the powers of rulers. Gradually, representatives of the nobility began to dominate the political life of the Crown. The Polish nobility provided advice on the issues of the state and region at Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. sejmiks and general sejms. 2. provincial and convocation sejms. 3. dinner with the king during the time of the general sejm.
A page from the Statute prepared by Primate Jan Łaski, Grand Chancellor of the Crown, presenting the Polish Parliament.
Source: Przesławnego Królestwa Polskiego przywileje, konstytucje i zezwolenia urzędowe oraz uznane dekrety, 1506.
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Exercise 9
Wersja alternatywna ćwiczenia: Match the terms to the explanations. Autumn of the Middle Ages Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Dynasty Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Council Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Schism Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Succession Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Election Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position General sejm Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Sejmik Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Personal union Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position
Wersja alternatywna ćwiczenia: Match the terms to the explanations. Autumn of the Middle Ages Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Dynasty Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Council Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Schism Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Succession Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Election Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position General sejm Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Sejmik Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position Personal union Możliwe odpowiedzi: 1. a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), 2. the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings, 3. a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, 4. a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, 5. the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, 6. separation, division between followers of one religion, 7. the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, 8. a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, 9. selection by vote to a high position
Match the terms to the explanations.
the principle of transfer or inheritance of monarchal power by a successor in the event of death, abdication, or other circumstances, a coalition of two or more countries which had the same ruler, while preserving state separateness, selection by vote to a high position, a convention of Catholic Church bishops under the leadership of the Pope, supposed to establish new church laws and to regulate the doctrine of faith, a colloquial definition of the last centuries of the Middle Ages (14th-15th centuries), separation, division between followers of one religion, a regional assembly convened in Poland since the 14th century in each voivodeship, the name of the highest representative body, which decided on important matters in the country, the family from which the reigning rulers came, e.g., kings
Autumn of the Middle Ages
Dynasty
Council
Schism
Succession
Election
General sejm
Sejmik
Personal union
Keywords
Autumn of the Middle Ages, schism, council, dynasty, personal union, election
Jesień średniowiecza – potoczne określenie ostatnich wieków epoki średniowiecza (XIV‑XV w.) wprowadzone przez holenderskiego historyka Johana Huizinga na początku XX wieku.
Dynastia – ród, z którego pochodzą panujący władcy, np. królowie. Dynastie uznaje się za panującą jeśli co najmniej jej dwaj przedstawiciele panują bezpośrednio po sobie lub z niewielkimi przerwami.
Sobór – zebranie biskupów Kościoła katolickiego pod przewodnictwem papieża mające na celu ustanowienie nowych praw kościelnych i uregulowanie doktryny wiary.
Schizma – rozdział, podział między wyznawcami jednej religii. W średniowieczu doszło do wielkiej schizmy wschodniej (rozłam na Kościół wschodni i zachodni) zapoczątkowanej w 1054 r. i wielkiej schizmy zachodniej z lat 1378‑1417 (podział w łonie Kościoła zachodniego).
Szlachta – wyższy ze stanów społecznych wykształcony w XIV‑XV w. Przynależność do niej określało urodzenie i posiadanie nazwiska rodowego. Posiadała szereg przywilejów i łączyła się z obowiązkiem służby wojskowej.
Sejm walny – nazwa najwyższego organu przedstawicielskiego – parlamentu – najpierw w Królestwie Polskim, a od 1569 roku w Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów, decydujące o ważnych sprawach w państwie. Składał się z dwóch izb – senatu i izby poselskiej oraz trzech stanów sejmujących króla, posłów i senatorów.